Vlachs

"Vlach" (English: /ˈvlɑːx/ or /ˈvlæk/), also "Wallachian" (and many other variants[1]), is a historical term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate mainly Romanians but also Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Istro-Romanians and other Eastern Romance-speaking subgroups of Central and Eastern Europe.[2]

For other uses, see Vlachs (disambiguation).
"Vlach", "Wallach", and "Oláh" redirect here. For other uses, see Vlach (disambiguation), Wallach (disambiguation), and Oláh (disambiguation).

Théodore Valerio, 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz ("Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț")

As a contemporary term, in the English language, the Vlachs are the Balkan Romance-speaking peoples who live south of the Danube in what are now southern Albania, Bulgaria, northern Greece, North Macedonia, and eastern Serbia as native ethnic groups, such as the Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians and, in Serbian, the Timok Romanians.[3] The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds,[4] and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively.[5] The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians.

"Vlachs" were initially identified and described during the 11th century by George Kedrenos. According to one origin theory, modern Romanians, Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians.[6] According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period[7] and western Balkan populations known as "Vlachs" also have had Romanized Illyrian origins.[8]

Nowadays, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora).[9]

Etymology
Further information: Walhaz
Map of the Balkans with regions inhabited by Romanians/Vlachs (Eastern Romance speakers) highlighted

The word Vlach/Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah, Valah, Valach, Voloh, Blac, oláh, Vlas, Ilac, Ulah, etc.[1]) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe,[5] adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz, which meant "stranger", from *Wolkā-[10] (Caesar's Latin: Volcae, Strabo and Ptolemy's Greek: Ouolkai).[11] Via Latin, in Gothic, as *walhs, the ethnonym took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker" and later "shepherd, nomad".[11][5] The term was adopted into Greek as Vláhoi (Βλάχοι), Slavic as Vlah (pl. Vlasi), Hungarian as oláh and olasz, etc.[12][13] The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon, and in Switzerland for Romansh-speakers (German: Welsch),[5] and in Poland Włochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians.[11][1] The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians.[14]

Vlach Herdsmen in Greece (Amand von Schweiger-Lerchenfeld, 1887)

Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen).[15][16]

Historical and modern uses

The term first appeared in late medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Balkan Romance languages, especially Romanians.[1][3] But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called Vlachs or Wallachians (oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (Βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (Воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used the endonym Rumân or Român, from the Latin Romanus, meaning "Roman".[1][17]

However, in historical sources the term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: "Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian".[18] In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs (Bulgaralbanitoblahos), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs.[19] According to the Serbian historian Sima Ćirković, the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name "Greek", "Serb" or "Latin".[20]

Map depicting the current distribution of Balkan Romance-speaking peoples

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century.[4] Some Greeks used Vlacho as a pejorative term. In Žumberak, members of the Greek Catholic Church were called Vlachs, while in Carniola, all inhabitants of Žumberak were called as such. In the Posavina and Bihać areas, Muslims used the term Vlasi for all Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics), while the Catholics used that name to refer to Eastern Christian Orthodox. Under the Ottoman rule, a large part of the Dalmatian hinterland was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the Shtokavian dialect and called Vlach or Morlach by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term Vlah evolved to Vlaj (pl. Vlaji) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants".[21] In Istria, the ethnonym Vlach is used by the Chakavian-speaking Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries.[22]

Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.[23]) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.[24][25] In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah, plural Vlasi) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.[3] Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla (plural Vlaš) in their own language.[3]

Medieval usage
See also: History of Romania, Origin of the Romanians, and History of the Aromanians
Map of southeastern Europe, delineating Roman and Greek influence
The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions
Hypothetical map projecting the transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past

8th century

First precise data about Vlachs are in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river (present-day North Macedonia); the original document containing the information is from the Konstamonitou monastery.[26]

9th century

According to the medieval Hungarian book Gesta Hungarorum ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), when the Hungarians of Grand Prince Árpád conquered the Carpathian Basin, Slavs, Bulgarians and Blachij, and also the shepherds of the Romans (sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum) inhabited it.[27] Most researchers say that the Blachij are the Vlachs,[28] others that they are the Bulaqs, a Turkic people.[29] However, modern historiography agrees that the text is not historically authentic and contains a lot of fiction from folklore. It was written around 300 years after the described events and doesn't match with information in contemporaneous sources. As an example to its errors, the Cumans also appear in the area when in reality they arrived much later.[30][31][32][33]

10th century

John Skylitzes mentioned the Vlachs in 976, as guides and guards of Byzantine caravans in the Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria, they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.[34]

Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks and many other peoples".[35]

Ibn al-Nadīm published in 938 the work Kitāb al-Fihrist mentioning "Turks, Bulgars and Vlahs" (using Blagha for Vlachs)[36][37]

11th century

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon (1078), described a 1066 revolt against the emperor in Northern Greece led by Nicolitzas Delphinas and other Vlachs.[38]

The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th–13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs.[39][40] Non-Romanian scholars on the subject, such as Omeljan Pritsak, however, point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people, since the "Blakumen" in the texts are “non-christian heathens” and nomadic horsemans.[41]

In the Bulgarian state of the 11th and 12th century, Vlachs live in large numbers, and they were equals to the Bulgarian population.[42]

12th century
Map of Central-Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages/early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus.

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written c. 1113 states that the Volochi people attacked the Slavs of the Danube and settled among them and oppressed them, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the Vistula under the name of Leshi.[43] Later, the Hungarians drove the Vlachs away, taking and settling the land.[44][45] The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians, although most non-Romanian historians consider the Volochi the Franks, as their country is placed west to Baltic Sea and near England by the author of the work, Nestor the Chronicler.[46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54] The Frankish Empire stretched from the North Sea to the Danube.

Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population.[55]

Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.[56][57]

The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.

13th century

The Venetian Chronicle calls Black Cumania the colony of the black Vlachs, who migrated north. This area later becomes Wallachia.[58]

In 1213, an army of Vlachs, Saxons and Pechenegs, led by the Count of Sibiu, Joachim Türje, attacked the Bulgarians and Cumans from Vidin.[59] After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.[60]

At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon of Kéza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns.[61][62] Archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, and the last region defended by the Vlachs and Pechenegs (until 1200) was between the Olt River and the Carpathians.[63][64]

Shortly after the fall of the Land of the Olt, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region.[65] In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, "silva blacorum et bissenorum" was given to the settlers.[66] The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum (Walachian law).[67]

In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River. A town, Baia (near the said river), was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons (see also Foundation of Moldavia).[68][69] In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia).[70]

14th century

The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses.[71][72] In the 14th century, royal charters from the Kingdom of Serbia included segregation policies stating that “a Serb shall not marry a Vlach.”[73] However, these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs, Vlachs and also Albanians did take place.[73] But in these charters, Vlasi could have had the meaning of a social class, used for the dependent shepherds of the time, part of the sebri mentioned in the Dušan's Code, since the dependent population was encouraged to switch to agriculture, this being more worth to the crown.

15th century

In 1404, Archbishop Johannes de Galonifontibus, in his Libellus de notitia orbis, notes that the Vlachs originated from Macedonia, but were already living in "Great Vlachia" too, which corresponds to Wallachia.[74]

Toponymy
The territories of the Bolohoveni
Bolohoveni territory, according to V. A. Boldur

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.[75] In search of better pasture, they were called Vlasi or Valaši by the Slavs.

States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:

  • Wallachia – between the Southern Carpathians and the Danube (Ţara Românească in Romanian); Bassarab-Wallachia (Bassarab's Wallachia and Ungro-Wallachia or Wallachia Transalpina in administrative sources; Istro-Vlachia (Danubian Wallachia in Byzantine sources), and Velacia secunda on Spanish maps
  • Moldavia – between the Carpathians and the Dniester river (Bogdano-Wallachia; Bogdan's Wallachia, Moldo-Wallachia or Maurovlachia; Black Wallachia, Moldovlachia or Rousso-Vlachia in Byzantine sources[76]); Bogdan Iflak or Wallachia in Polish sources; L'otra Wallachia (the other Wallachia) in Genovese sources and Velacia tertia on Spanish maps
  • Transylvania – between the Carpathians and the Hungarian plain; Wallachia interior in administrative sources and Velacia prima on Spanish maps
  • Second Bulgarian Empire, between the Carpathians and the Balkan Mountains – Regnum Bulgarorum et Blachorum in documents by Pope Innocent III
  • Terra Prodnicorum (or Terra Brodnici), mentioned by Pope Honorius III in 1222. Vlachs led by Ploskanea supported the Tatars in the 1223 Battle of Kalka. Vlach lands near Galicia in the west, Volhynia in the north, Moldova in the south and the Bolohoveni lands in the east were conquered by Galicia.[77]
  • Bolokhoveni was Vlach land between Kyiv and the Dniester in Ukraine. Place names were Olohovets, Olshani, Voloschi and Vlodava, mentioned in 11th-to-13th-century Slavonic chronicles. It was conquered by Galicia.[78] But it is important to note that among historians, the Bolokhoveni are clearly a Slavic people, as their name and their archaeological finds clearly position them as Slavs, and written sources all refer to them as Slavs.[79]

Regions and places are:

Little Wallachia in Croatia and Bosnia

Shepherd culture

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the transhumance groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.[84]

Some researchers, like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel, theorized that the origins of Stećci tombstones, which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century, could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times.[85]

Legacy

According to Ilona Czamańska "for several recent centuries the investigation of the Vlachian ethnogenesis was so much dominated by political issues that any progress in this respect was incredibly difficult." The transhumance of Vlachs, the heirs of Roman citizens, may be a key for solving the problem of ethnogenesis, but the problem is that many migrations were in multiple directions during the same time. These migrations were not just part of the Balkans and the Carpathians, they exist and in the Caucasus, the Adriatic islands and possibly over the entire region of the Mediterranean Sea. Because of this, our knowledge concerning primary migrations of the Vlachs and the ethnogenesis is more than modest.[87]

See also

Notes
  1. Ioan-Aurel Pop. "On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Wallachian and Romania/Wallachia" (PDF). Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  2. "Valah". Dicționare ale limbii române. dexonline.ro. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  3. Vlach at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. Sugar, Peter F. (1996). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804. University of Washington Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-295-96033-7.
  5. Tanner 2004, p. 203.
  6. Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Traditionally scholars have seen the Dacians as ancestors of the modern Rumanians and Vlachs and the Illyrians as the proto-Albanians.
  7. According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu: "România: Atlas Istorico-geografic", Academia Română 1996, ISBN 973-27-0500-0, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (English text), the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the Lower Danube basin during the Migration Period is an obvious fact: Thraco-Romans haven't vanished in the soil & Vlachs haven't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.
  8. Winnifrith, Tom J. (2002). Badlands-Borderland. A History of Southern Albania/Northern Epirus. London: Duckworth. p. 44. ISBN 9780715632017. Romanized Illyrians, the ancestors of the modern Vlachs
  9. "Council of Europe Parliamentary Recommendation 1333 (1997)". Assembly.coe.int. 24 June 1997. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  10. Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
  11. Juhani Nuorluoto; Martti Leiwo; Jussi Halla-aho (2001). Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies. Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-952-10-0246-5.
  12. Kelley L. Ross (2003). "Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History". The Proceedings of the Friesian School. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Note: The Vlach Connection
  13. Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. BRILL. 2013. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-90-04-25076-5.
  14. Thomas M. Wilson; Hastings Donnan (2005). Culture and Power at the Edges of the State: National Support and Subversion in European Border Regions. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-3-8258-7569-5.
  15. Ilie Gherghel, Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach", București: Convorbiri Literare, 1920, p. 4-8.
  16. G. Popa Lisseanu, Continuitatea românilor în Dacia, Editura Vestala, Bucuresti, 2014, p.78
  17. H. C. Darby (1957). "The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries". The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 1. p. 34.
  18. Jan Gawron; (2020) Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c. Territorial, ethnic and social origins. p. 274-275; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA xxVI,
  19. Noel Malcolm; (1996) Bosnia: A Short History p. 101; NYU Press, ISBN 0814755615
  20. Ćirković, Sima (2020). Živeti sa istorijom. Belgrade: Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. p. 309.
  21. Stjepanović, Dejan (2018). Multiethnic regionalisms in Southeastern Europe: statehood alternatives. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-137-58585-1. OCLC 1004716379.
  22. Spicijarić Paškvan, Nina (2014). "Vlasi i krčki Vlasi u literaturi i povijesnim izvorima" [Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources] (PDF). In Editura Fundaţiei (ed.). Studii şi cercetări. Actele Simpozionului “Banat - istorie şi multiculturalitate”. Zrenianin - 2012, Reşiţa - 2013 (in Croatian). Novi Sad, Zrenjanin. p. 348.
  23. The Balkan Vlachs: Born to Assimilate? at culturalsurvival.org
  24. Demirtaş-Coşkun 2001.
  25. Tanner 2004.
  26. Stelian Brezeanu, O istorie a Bizanțului, Editura Meronia, București, 2005, p.126
  28. E.g. Armbruster, Adolf (1972). Romanitatea românilor: Istoria unei idei; Kristó, Gyula (2002). Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon; Spinei, Victor (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century
  29. E.g. Györffy, György (1963). Az Árpád-kori Magyarország Történeti Földrajza; Faragó, Imre (2017). Térképészeti földrajz; Rásonyi, László (1979), Bulaqs and Oguzs in Medieval Transylvania
  30. Thoroczkay, Gábor (2009). Írások az Árpád-korról
  31. Róna-Tas, András (1999)Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History
  32. Gyula, Kristó (2002). Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon
  33. Macartney, Carlile Aylmer (1953). The Medieval Hungarian Historians: A Critical & Analytical Guide
  34. Spinei, V. (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century. Brill, p. 152
  35. A. Decei, V. Ciocîltan, "La mention des Roumains (Walah) chez Al-Maqdisi", in Romano-arabica I, Bucharest, 1974, pp. 49–54
  36. Ibn al Nadim, al-Fihrist. English translation: The Fihrist of al-Nadim. Editor și traducător: B. Dodge, New York, Columbia University Press, 1970, p. 37 with n.82
  37. Spinei, Victor, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century. Brill. 2009, p. 83
  38. G. Murnu, Când si unde se ivesc românii întâia dată în istorie, în "Convorbiri Literare", XXX, pp. 97-112
  39. Egils saga einhenda ok Ásmundar berserkjabana, in Drei lygisogur, ed. Å. Lagerholm (Halle/Saale, 1927), p. 29
  40. V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p. 106, ISBN 9789047428800
  41. Pritsak, Omeljan (1981). The Origin of Rus': Old Scandinavian Sources Other than the Sagas. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-64465-4.
  42. Andre Du Nay; (1996) The Origins of the Rumanians: The Early History of the Rumanian Language p. 31; Matthias Corvinus Publishing, ISBN 1882785088
  43. THE RUSSIAN PRIMARY CHRONICLE AND THE VLACHS OF EASTERN EUROPE- Demetrius Dvoichenko-Markov Byzantion Vol. 49 (1979), pp. 175-187, Peeters Publishers
  44. Samuel Hazzard Cross et Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor (English), The Russian Primary Chronicle. Laurentian Text, The Medieval Academy of America, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2012, p.62
  45. C. A. Macartney, The Habsburg Empire: 1790–1918, Faber & Faber, 4 sept. 2014, paragraf.185
  46. Kristó, Gyula (2003). Early Transylvania (895–1324).Lucidus Kiadó. ISBN 963-9465-12-7
  47. Deletant, Dennis (1992). Ethnos and Mythos in the History of Transylvania: the case of the chronicler Anonymus
  48. Петрухин В.Я., Раевский Д.С (2004). Очерки истории народов России в древности и раннем средневековье. М. (in Russian)
  49. D. S. Likhachev, O. V. Tvorogov (2012). Повесть временных лет (in Russian). p. 203. В данном контексте предполагалось, что под волохами лето-писец имел в виду франков
  50. M. B., Sverdlov (1993). К изучению мордовских исторических произве- дений в составе «Повести временных лет (in Russian). pp. 18-19
  51. Gyóni, Mathias (1949). Les Volochs des Annales primitives de Kiev – Études slaves et roumaines (in French). pp. 83–92
  52. Vladimir Petrukhin, Dmitrij Rajevszkij (2004). Очерки истории народов России в древности и раннем средневековье
  53. Ludolf, Müller (1977). Handbuch zur Nestorchronik IV (in German). p. 210
  54. Ferincz, István (2015). Régmúlt idők elbeszélése – A Kijevi Rusz első krónikája (in Hungarian). p. 18
  55. "Tudela".
  56. A. Decei, op. cit., p. 25.
  57. V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p.132, ISBN 9789004175365
  58. Timaru - Kast, Sándor (2019). A románok eredetéről, Magna Vlachiától Ungrovlachiáig. A Kárpát-régió magyar földrajza (PDF) (in Hungarian).
  59. Curta, 2006, p. 385
  60. Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, București, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27
  61. Simon de Kéza, Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, IV,
  62. G. Popa-Lisseanu, Izvoarele istoriei Românilor, IV, Bucuresti, 1935, p. .32
  63. K. HOREDT, Contribuţii la istoria Transilvaniei în secolele IV-XIII, București, 1958, p.109-131. IDEM, Siebenburgen im Fruhmittelalter, Bonn, 1986, p.111 sqq.
  64. I.M.Tiplic, CONSIDERAŢII CU PRIVIRE LA LINIILE ÎNTĂRITE DE TIPUL PRISĂCILOR DIN TRANSILVANIA(sec. IX-XIII)*ACTA TERRAE SEPTEMCASTRENSIS I, pp 147-164
  65. A. IONIŢĂ, Date noi privind colonizarea germană în Ţara Bârsei şi graniţa de est a regatului maghiar în cea de a doua jumătate a secolului al XII-lea, în RI, 5, 1994, 3-4.
  66. J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, pp. 104-138
  67. Stefan Pascu: A History of Transylvania, Wayne State Univ Pr, 1983, p. 57
  68. Pavel Parasca, Cine a fost "Laslău craiul unguresc" din tradiţia medievală despre întemeierea Ţării Moldovei [=Who was "Laslău, Hungarian king" of the medieval tradition on the foundation of Moldavia]. In: Revista de istorie şi politică, An IV, Nr. 1.; ULIM;2011 ISSN 1857-4076
  69. O. Pecican, Dragoș-vodă – originea ciclului legendar despre întemeierea Moldovei. În "Anuarul Institutului de Istorie și Arheologie Cluj". T. XXXIII. Cluj-Napoca, 1994, pp. 221-232
  70. D. CĂPRĂROIU, ON THE BEGINNINGS OF THE TOWN OF CÂMPULUNG, ″Historia Urbana″, t. XVI, nr. 1-2/2008, pp. 37-64
  71. Kurtović, Esad (January 2014). "Esad Kurtović, Konj u srednjovjekovnoj Bosni, Filozofski fakultet, Sarajevo 2014". Filozofski Fakultet, Sarajevo: 205.
  72. „Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Тhome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Тhome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis. Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino. Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere. Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum. Renuntiando" (09.08. 1428.g.), Div. Canc., XLV, 31v.
  73. Sima Ćirković; (2004) The Serbs p. 130; Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 0631204717
  74. Johannes, de Galonifontibus. Libellus de notitia orbis (in Latin).
  75. Hammel, E. A. and Kenneth W. Wachter. "The Slavonian Census of 1698. Part I: Structure and Meaning, European Journal of Population". University of California.
  76. Vásáry, István (2005). Cumans and Tatars: Oriental Military in the Pre-Ottoman Balkans, 1185–1365. Cambridge University Press. pp. 142–143. ISBN 978-0-521-83756-9.
  77. A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992, pp 98-106
  78. A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992
  79. Spinei, Victor (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century. Koninklijke Brill NV. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-90-04-17536-5.
  80. Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană, Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : Istoria Românilor, Petre Ș. Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, vol. XVI, 1998
  81. Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases – these names disappear after 1980.
  82. Mircea Mușat; Ion Ardeleanu (1985). From Ancient Dacia to Modern Romania. Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. that in 1550 a foreign writer, the Italian Gromo, called the Banat "Valachia citeriore" (the Wallachia that stands on this side).
  83. Z. Konečný, F. Mainus, Stopami minulosti: Kapitoly z dějin Moravy a Slezska/Traces of the Past: Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silesia, Brno:Blok,1979
  84. Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172
  85. Marian Wenzel, "Bosnian and Herzegovinian Tombstobes—Who Made Them and Why?" Sudost-Forschungen 21 (1962): 102–143
  86. Anca & N.S. Tanașoca, Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică, Editura Fundației Pro, 2004
  87. Ilona Czamańska; (2015) The Vlachs – several research problems p. 14; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I,

References
  • G. Weigand, Die Aromunen, Bd.Α΄-B΄, J. A. Barth (A.Meiner), Leipzig 1895–1894.
  • George Murnu, Istoria românilor din Pind, Vlahia Mare 980–1259 ("History of the Romanians of the Pindus, Greater Vlachia, 980–1259"), Bucharest, 1913
  • Ilie Gherghel, Câteva consideraţiuni la cuprinsul noţiunii cuvântului "Vlach". Bucuresti: Convorbiri Literare, (1920).
  • Theodor Capidan, Aromânii, dialectul aromân. Studiul lingvistic ("Aromanians, Aromanian dialect, Linguistic Study"), Bucharest, 1932
  • A.Hâciu, Aromânii, Comerţ. Industrie. Arte. Expasiune. Civiliytie, tip. Cartea Putnei, Focşani 1936.
  • Steriu T. Hagigogu, "Romanus şi valachus sau Ce este romanus, roman, român, aromân, valah şi vlah", Bucharest, 1939
  • Τ. Winnifrith, The Vlachs. The History of a Balkan People, Duckworth 1987
  • A. Koukoudis, Oi mitropoleis kai i diaspora ton Vlachon [Major Cities and Diaspora of the Vlachs], publ. University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 1999.
  • A. Keramopoulos, Ti einai oi koutsovlachoi [What are the Koutsovlachs?], publ 2 University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 2000.
  • Birgül Demirtaş-Coşkun; Ankara University. Center for Eurasian Strategic Studies (2001). The Vlachs: a forgotten minority in the Balkans. Frank Cass.
  • Victor A. Friedman, "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, et al. Slavica Helsingiensa: 21, Helsinki: University of Helsinki. 2001. 26–50. full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of North Macedonia, has in-depth discussion of many topics, including the origins of the Vlachs, their status as a minority in various countries, their political use in various contexts, and so on.
  • Asterios I. Koukoudis, The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora, 2003, ISBN 960-7760-86-7
  • Tanner, Arno (2004). The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe: The History and Today of Selected Ethnic Groups in Five Countries. East-West Books. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-952-91-6808-8.
  • Th Capidan, Aromânii, Dialectul Aromân, ed2 Εditură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromâne, București 2005
  • Nikola Trifon, Les Aroumains, un peuple qui s'en va (Paris, 2005) ; Cincari, narod koji nestaje (Beograd, 2010)

Further reading
  • The Watchmen, a documentary film by Alastair Kenneil and Tod Sedgwick (USA) 1971 describes life in the Vlach village of Samarina in Epiros, Northern Greece
  • John Kennedy Campbell, 'Honour Family and Patronage' A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community, Oxford University Press, 1974
  • Gheorghe Bogdan, MEMORY, IDENTITY, TYPOLOGY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY RECONSTRUCTION OF VLACH ETHNOHISTORY, B.A., University of British Columbia, 1992
  • Franck Vogel, a photo-essay on the Valchs published by GEO magazine (France), 2010.
  • Adina Berciu-Drăghicescu, Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni : aspecte identitare şi culturale, Editura Universităţii din București, 2012, ISBN 978-606-16-0148-6
  • Octavian Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11–32.
Look up Vlach in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vlachs.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Vlachs".
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.