Paratarajas

The name "Parataraja" in the Brahmi script ( Pāratarāja) on a coin of Arjuna.[7]

The coinage was first studied by E. J. Rapson in 1905 before being subject to a comprehensive evaluation by B. N. Mukherjee in 1972; they have been since superseded by Pankoj Tandon's analyses alongside Harry Falk.

Coinage was issued in five denominations: didrachms, drachms, hemidrachms, quarter drachms, and obols. However all rulers did not issue every denomination. The first six rulers minted stable denominations in silver, before they were devalued and then gave way to billon followed by copper.[8] Tandon notes multiple similarities with Indo-Parthian coinage especially in the metrological standards and shape, as well as with the coinage of the Western Satraps, especially in fabric.[9][lower-alpha 2]

The coins exhibit a bust on the obverse, and a swastika — either right-facing or left-facing — on the reverse, circumscribed by a Prakrit legend in Brahmi script (usually silver coins) or Kharoshthi script (usually copper coins).[1] This legend carried the name of the issuer, followed by patronymic, and identification as the "King of Paratas".[1] The die engraver often left the legend incomplete if he ran out of room — a quirk peculiar to the Paratarajas.

A couple of contemporary inscriptions refer to the polity. The Paikuli inscription, erected by Narseh (293-302) on his victory over Bahram III, noted an anonymous "Pāradānshah" (King of Pardan) to have been among his many congratulators:[6]

Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht in Naqsh-i-Rustam, dated to 262 CE, had "P'rtu"/"Pardan" as one of the many provinces of the Sasanian Empire:[11]

"And I (Shapur I) possess the lands: Fars Persis, Pahlav (Parthia) (......) and all of Abarshahr (all the upper (eastern, Parthian) provinces), Kerman (Kirman), Sakastan, Turgistan, Makuran, Pardan (Paradene), Hind (Sind) and Kushanshahr all the way to Pashkibur (Peshawar?) and to the borders of Kashgaria, Sogdia and Chach (Tashkent) and of that sea-coast Mazonshahr (Oman)."

— Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (262 CE), translation by Josef Wiesehöfer (1996).[12]

In 1926-1927, Aurel Stein commandeered an excavation at the ruins of a Buddhist site at "Tor Dherai" in Loralai and discovered potsherds carrying Prakrit inscriptions, in Brahmi as well as Kharosthi script.[13][lower-alpha 3] Sten Konow, publishing the report about three years later, failed to understand the Brahmi legends but interpreted the Kharosthi legend as:[13]

The Tor Dherai inscribed potsherds mentioning the Parataraja Yolamira

Of the Shahi Yola Mira, the master [owner[lower-alpha 4]] of the vihara, this water hall (is) the religious gift, in his own Yola-Mira-shahi-Vihara, to the order of the four quarters, in the acceptance of the Sarvastivadin teachers. And from this right donation may there be in future a share for (his) mother and father, in future a share for all beings and long life for the master of the law.

— Tor Dherai inscribed potsherds.[13]

Yola Mira, while an unknown King at the time of the excavation, has been since determined to be the earliest Parataraja King from coin-finds.[14] The potsherds remain the only non-numismatic evidence for any of the Parataraja rulers.[8]

No mention of the dynasty is found in extant literature; however classical literature — in Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit — mention of tribal polities, variously named "Parētakēnoí" (Πᾰρητᾰκηνοί), "Pareitakai/Pareitacae" (Παρειτάκαις), "Parsidai" (Παρ?óδòν > Παρσιδὦν (?)), "Paraetaceni", "Paradene" (Παραδηνή) and "Parada". Tandon accepts Mukherjee's suggestion about all of them referring to the same entity, which gave rise to the dynasty; he cites Datayola's coin-inscriptions in support.

C. 440 BCE, Herodotus described of the Parētakēnoí as one of the Median tribes, collectively ruled by Deiokes.[5] Arrian records Alexander the Great to have encountered the Pareitakai in a Sogdian province; a siege was mounted but eventually their ruler offered submission and was even rewarded with governorship of other provinces.[5][15] Other contemporary historians — Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo, and Plutarch — reiterate the account at large.[15] Isidore of Charax (fl. 0 C.E - ?)[lower-alpha 5] noted Paraitakene to be the geographical area beyond Sakastene.[5] The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) describes the territory of the Parsidai beyond the Ommanitic region, on the coast of Balochistan.[5] The contemporaneous Natural History by Pliny records the Paraetaceni to be between Aria and Parthia.[5] Ptolemy notes Paradene to be a toponym for an interior region of Gedrosia.[5]

A rough lineage of Paratarajas rulers can be reconstructed from numismatic evidence as follows:

Ruler	Coin	Filiation	Approx. dates[lower-alpha 6]	Discussion
Yolamira[26]	Pāratarājas. Yolamira. Circa AD 125-150	Son of Bagareva	c. 125–150 CE	The name translates to "Warrior Mithra" in Bactrian. Coinage was issued in all five denominations. Three distinct phases of minting—bearded bust (obv.) + right-facing swastika (rev.); clean-shaven bust + left-facing swastika; clean-shaven bust + right-facing swastika—have been observed. The didrachm was minted only in the second phase. Coin legend in the Brahmi script: Yolamirasa Bagarevaputrasa Pāratarājasa "Of the king of the Paratas, Yolamira, son of Bagareva"
Bagamira[27]		Eldest son of Yolamira	c. 150 CE	The name translates to "Lord Mithra." Only two drachms are known, both of which were struck on the die used by Yolamira in his third phase. The reverse features a right-facing swastika. The coin legend—Bagamirasa Yolamiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script.
Arjuna[28]	Paratarajas_ruler_Arjuna_Circa_150-165_CE.	Second son of Yolamira	c. 150–160 CE	The name was probably adopted from the eponymous character in Mahabharata, a Hindu epic; Tandon hypothesizes that he might have been the son of an Indian wife. In his first phase, Arjuna used Bagamira's die with a right-facing swastika on the reverse to issue drachms and hemidrachms. A new obverse die was then coupled with a left-facing swastika to mint the same denominations. In another (probably succeeding) phase, the same die was coupled with a right-facing swastika to mint drachms. The coin legend—Arjunasa Yolamiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script.
Hvaramira[29]	Pāratarājas. Hvaramira. Circa AD 165-175	a third son of Yolamira	c. 160–175 CE	The name translates to "Glorious Mithra"; hvara > khwarrah. In his first phase, Hvaramira used Arjuna's die from the last phase with a right-facing swastika on the reverse to mint drachms. Then, a new die was used with a right-facing swastika to mint drachms and didrachms. Finally, this die was coupled with a left-facing swastika to mint drachms. The coin legend—Hvaramirasa Yolamiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script; some coins use a variant spelling of Yodamiraputrasa.
Mirahvara[30]	Pāratarājas. Mirahvara. Circa AD 175-185	son of Hvaramira	c. 175–185 CE	The name translates to "Glorious Mithra". In his first phase, Mirahvara used Hvaramira's die from the last phase to mint drachms; Arjuna's hemidrachm die from the second phase to mint quarter drachms; and Yolamira's die from the third phase to mint hemidrachms. All had a right-facing Swastika on the reverse. In the next phase, Hvaramira's dies from the second and third phases were coupled with a left-facing swastika to respectively mint didrachms and drachms. In the third phase, a new die and Yolamira's die from the third phase were coupled with a right-facing swastika to respectively mint drachms and hemidrachms. The coin legend—Mirahvarasa Hvaramiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script.
Miratakhma[31]	Parata Rajas. Miratakhma	another son of Hvaramira	c. 185–200 CE	The name translates to "Heroic Mithra." Drachm and hemidrachm issues have been found: Tandon suspects didrachms were likely, given the abundance of his coins. Phases are not very coherent. Used Mirahvara's die from the third phase and a new die to mint drachms; both right-facing and left-facing Swastika is found on the reverse. The hemidrachm used Arjuna's die from the second phase with a right-facing swastika. The coin legend—Mirahvarasa Hvaramiraputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Brahmi script. Is the only king to feature a Sanskrit legend—Miratakhmasya Hvaramiraputrasya Pāratarāja(sya)—on some drachms.
Kozana[32]	Pāratarājas Kozana Circa 200-220 CE	son of Bagavharna (and perhaps grandson of Bagamira?)	c. 200–220 CE	The meaning of the name cannot be conclusively deciphered; Harry Falk speculates a connection with the homonymous founder of the Kushana empire. Kozana was the first Pāratarāja king to issue coins with the legends in Kharoshthi, which upcoming rulers adopted. Significant devaluation is observed for the first time. All mints used Miratakhma's dies. In the first phase, minted hemidrachms (and prob. drachms) with Brahmi legends. In the second phase, drachms were minted with Kharoshthi legend. In the third phase, minted drachms, didrachms, and hemidrachms on a reduced weight base. All coinage had a right-facing Swastika on the reverse. The Brahmi legend ran, Kozanasa putra Pāratarāja. The Kharoshthi legend ran, Kozanasa Bagavharnaputrasa Pāratarājasa.
Bhimarjuna[33]		son of Yolatakhma (and perhaps grandson of Arjuna?)	c. 220–235 CE	Apart from Arjuna, the only King to adopt an Indian name formed out of a portmanteau of two characters in Mahabharata, a Hindu epic. Last King to issue silver mints; only drachms have been found. Used a new die—that did not match with any previous ruler's but was stylistically similar to Kozana's (i.e. Miratakhma's)—with a right-facing Swastika on the reverse. There is a drastic devaluation from silver to billon to copper. The coin legend—Bhimarjunasa Yolatakhmaputrasa Pāratarājasa—runs in the Kharoshthi script.
Koziya[34]	Pāratarājas. Koziya. Circa AD 230-270	son of Kozana	c. 235–265 CE	Koziya standing The meaning of the name remains unknown. Most abundant and complex coinage among all Paratarajas with several innovations—from inscribing names of Kings on the obverse to replacing the bust image with that of a turbanned standing King with a specter—which would become the mainstay of upcoming rulers. The coin legend—Koziyasa Kozanaputra Pāratarāja—runs in the Kharoshthi script.
Datarvharna[35]	Pāratarājas. Datarvharna. Circa AD 270-280	son of a Datayola (and perhaps grandson of Bhimarjuna?)	c. 265–280 CE	The meaning of the name cannot be conclusively deciphered; Harry Falk translates to "Glory of the Creator". Only a few didrachms have been found, in what Tandon suspects as an indicator of a short regime and extreme inflation reducing the need for lower denomination coins. Used dies stylistically similar to Koziya's with a right-facing Swastika on the reverse. The coin legend—Datarvharnasa Datayolaputrasa Pāratarāja—runs in the Kharoshthi script. The nominative Datarvharna is inscribed on the obverse.
Datayola[36]		son of Datarvharna	c. 280–300 CE	The meaning of the name cannot be conclusively deciphered; Harry Falk translates to "Fighter for the Law." Coins are cruder, and large denomination tetradrachms were introduced for the first time, pointing to a weak economy and inflation. Datayola used dies stylistically similar to Datarvharna's (or rather, Koziya's) with both right-facing and left-facing Swastika on the reverse. A couple of overstrikes on coins of the Kushano-Sasanian ruler Hormizd I (ruled c. 275 to 300) have been observed, providing a terminus post quem of circa 275, and challenging Shapur I's inscription, in which Shapur claims to be ruling Paradan as of 262 CE. The coin legend—Datayolasa Datarvharnaputrasa Pāratarāja—runs in the Kharoshthi script; some issues make pioneering use of Pāradarāja in place of Pāratarāja, suggesting the identity of the two names Pārata and Pārada. The nominative Datayola is inscribed on the obverse.

The frequent referencing of Mithra, a Zoroastrian deity, in the name of the rulers lend credence to the origins of the Paratarajas lying in the Far West.[9] Though Zoroastrians by faith in all probabilities, they likely patronaged Buddhism as well.[37] Tandon speculates the Paratarajas to have been Parthian vassals, who declared independence leveraging the weakening of imperial authority and a burgeoning trade with the Roman Empire.[16]

Nothing of significance can be obtained about their rule except that they flourished as an intermediary state between three major powers — the Kushanas to the north, the Western Satraps to the east, and the Sassanids to the west — for about two centuries.[38]

Their fall can be correlated to the well-corroborated decline in Indo-Roman trade volume (c. mid-3rd century onward) and then, Shapur II's devastating Eastern Campaign. Nonetheless, Tandon rejects that they were conquered by the Sasanians as early as 262 CE — as attested in Shapur I's inscription — since not only did Parata coins continue to be abundant without exhibiting any abrupt Sassanian influence as in the case of Bactria etc. but also the region was not claimed as a Sassanian territory in future inscriptions like Kartir's, at Naqsh-e Rajab.[37][lower-alpha 7]